Research Methodology for UGC NET Exam

Research methodology is a crucial area of study for the UGC NET exam, as it forms the basis of scholarly inquiry and investigation. Below are detailed notes covering key concepts, types of research, methodologies, and important considerations:

1. Introduction to Research Methodology

• Definition: Research methodology refers to the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study. It involves the principles, procedures, and techniques used to collect, analyze, and interpret data.
• Importance: It ensures the accuracy, validity, and reliability of research findings.

2. Types of Research

• Basic Research
• : Also known as pure research, it aims to expand knowledge by formulating, evaluating, or expanding a theory.

Basic Research, also known as pure or fundamental research, is primarily concerned with gaining a deeper understanding of fundamental principles and theories without immediate practical application. It aims to expand the body of knowledge in a particular field of study.

1. Definition and Purpose

• Definition: Basic research is systematic inquiry aimed at acquiring new knowledge without looking for long-term benefits other than the advancement of knowledge.
• Purpose: To enhance understanding of theoretical constructs and phenomena, develop theories, and increase the scientific knowledge base.

2. Characteristics of Basic Research

• Theoretical Focus: It is centered on theory development and testing.
• Long-Term Perspective: Results are not intended for immediate practical use.
• Curiosity-Driven: Driven by a researcher’s curiosity or interest in a scientific question.
• Rigorous Methodology: Employs stringent scientific methods to ensure the reliability and validity of findings.

3. Importance of Basic Research

• Foundation for Applied Research: Provides the theoretical basis for applied research that seeks practical solutions.
• Innovation and Technological Advances: Leads to discoveries that can eventually result in new technologies and innovations.
• Education and Training: Contributes to academic knowledge, helping to educate and train future scientists and researchers.

4. Types of Basic Research

• Descriptive Research: Describes characteristics or functions of a specific phenomenon.
• Exploratory Research: Investigates phenomena to establish new theories or refine existing ones.
• Explanatory Research: Explains the reasons or causes behind a phenomenon.
• Experimental Research: Tests hypotheses through controlled experiments to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

5. Methodology of Basic Research

1. Identifying a Research Problem
   • Formulating a clear and concise research question.
   • Reviewing existing literature to understand current knowledge and gaps.
2. Formulating Hypotheses
   • Developing hypotheses based on theoretical frameworks.
3. Designing the Study
   • Choosing an appropriate research design (e.g., experimental, observational).
   • Defining variables and how they will be measured.
4. Data Collection
   • Collecting data through observations, experiments, or simulations.
5. Data Analysis
   • Employing statistical methods to analyze data.
   • Interpreting results in the context of the theoretical framework.
6. Conclusion and Theory Development
   • Drawing conclusions and discussing implications for existing theories.
   • Suggesting areas for further research.

6. Examples of Basic Research

• Physics: Understanding the fundamental properties of particles.
• Biology: Exploring the genetic code and its implications for inheritance.
• Chemistry: Investigating the properties of new chemical compounds.
• Psychology: Studying cognitive processes and behavioral patterns.

7. Challenges in Basic Research

• Funding: Often more difficult to secure funding for basic research compared to applied research.
• Uncertainty of Outcomes: The outcomes are not always immediately apparent or practical.
• Time-Consuming: Basic research projects can take a long time to yield significant results.

8. Ethical Considerations

• Integrity: Maintaining honesty and integrity in conducting and reporting research.
• Respect for Subjects: Ensuring ethical treatment of any human or animal subjects.
• Transparency: Being transparent about methods and potential conflicts of interest.

9. Reporting Basic Research

• Structure: Typically follows a structure of introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
• Peer Review: Subjected to peer review to validate findings and ensure quality.
• Dissemination: Published in academic journals, presented at conferences, and shared within the academic community.

10. Contribution to Science and Society

• Knowledge Expansion: Contributes significantly to the body of scientific knowledge.
• Basis for Innovation: Lays the groundwork for future technological and practical advancements.
• Educational Value: Provides valuable insights and knowledge for educational curricula.

• Applied Research: It is conducted to solve practical problems and improve the quality of life.

Applied Research focuses on solving specific, practical problems and improving human conditions. It aims to apply scientific knowledge to real-world situations and is directly concerned with providing solutions or recommendations.

1. Definition and Purpose

• Definition: Applied research is a type of research that seeks to solve practical problems by applying scientific methods and knowledge.
• Purpose: To find solutions to everyday problems, develop new technologies, improve processes, and enhance human well-being.

2. Characteristics of Applied Research

• Practical Focus: Directly aimed at solving specific problems or addressing real-world issues.
• Immediate Utility: Results are intended for immediate application and benefit.
• Problem-Oriented: Driven by the need to address specific challenges or improve existing practices.
• Interdisciplinary: Often involves collaboration across multiple fields to address complex problems.

3. Importance of Applied Research

• Problem Solving: Provides practical solutions to pressing issues in various fields such as healthcare, education, engineering, and business.
• Innovation and Development: Leads to the development of new products, technologies, and processes.
• Policy and Decision Making: Informs policymakers and helps in making evidence-based decisions.
• Economic Growth: Contributes to economic development by improving efficiency and productivity.

4. Types of Applied Research

• Action Research: Involves a cycle of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting to solve problems and improve practices within organizations or communities.
• Evaluation Research: Assesses the effectiveness of programs, policies, and interventions.
• Developmental Research: Focuses on designing and testing new products or processes.
• Field Research: Conducted in real-life settings to observe and understand phenomena in their natural context.

5. Methodology of Applied Research

1. Identifying a Research Problem
   • Defining a specific, practical problem to be addressed.
   • Conducting a literature review to understand existing knowledge and solutions.
2. Formulating Research Questions or Objectives
   • Developing clear, focused research questions or objectives based on the problem.
3. Research Design
   • Choosing an appropriate design (e.g., experimental, quasi-experimental, case study).
   • Defining variables and how they will be measured.
4. Data Collection
   • Collecting data using surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, or secondary data analysis.
5. Data Analysis
   • Applying statistical or qualitative methods to analyze the data.
   • Interpreting results in the context of the research questions or objectives.
6. Implementation and Evaluation
   • Implementing solutions or interventions based on research findings.
   • Evaluating the effectiveness and impact of the solutions.

6. Examples of Applied Research

• Healthcare: Developing new treatments or medical procedures to improve patient outcomes.
• Education: Creating and evaluating educational programs or curricula to enhance learning.
• Engineering: Designing new technologies or improving existing ones for better performance.
• Social Sciences: Assessing the impact of social policies or interventions on communities.

7. Challenges in Applied Research

• Complexity of Real-World Problems: Addressing multifaceted issues that may not have straightforward solutions.
• Ethical Considerations: Ensuring ethical treatment of participants and stakeholders.
• Resource Constraints: Limited funding and resources for conducting applied research.
• Balancing Rigor and Relevance: Maintaining scientific rigor while addressing practical concerns.

8. Ethical Considerations

• Informed Consent: Obtaining informed consent from participants.
• Confidentiality: Protecting the privacy and confidentiality of participants.
• Minimizing Harm: Ensuring that interventions do not cause harm.
• Transparency: Being transparent about methods, funding sources, and potential conflicts of interest.

9. Reporting Applied Research

• Structure: Typically includes introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and recommendations.
• Stakeholder Engagement: Involving stakeholders in the research process and communicating findings to them.
• Dissemination: Sharing results through reports, presentations, policy briefs, and publications.

10. Contribution to Society and Advancement

• Improved Practices: Leads to the adoption of better practices in various fields.
• Enhanced Quality of Life: Directly impacts and improves the quality of life for individuals and communities.
• Evidence-Based Policy: Provides the evidence needed to formulate and implement effective policies.
• Technological and Economic Progress: Drives technological innovations and economic growth.

• Descriptive Research: Involves describing characteristics of a population or phenomenon.
• Analytical Research: Focuses on understanding phenomena by analyzing data.
• Exploratory Research: Aims to explore a problem or situation to provide insights and understanding.
• Quantitative Research: Involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to describe, explain, predict, or control variables.
• Qualitative Research: Focuses on understanding concepts, thoughts, or experiences through textual or non-numerical data.

3. Research Process

1. Identifying the Research Problem
   • Choosing a topic of interest
   • Conducting a literature review
   • Formulating research questions or hypotheses
2. Review of Literature
   • Comprehensive survey of existing research
   • Identifying gaps in the current knowledge
3. Formulating Hypotheses
   • Developing testable statements based on the research problem
4. Research Design
   • Experimental Design: Involves manipulation and control of variables.
   • Non-Experimental Design: Observational studies without manipulation.
5. Sampling Techniques
   • Probability Sampling: Random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling.
   • Non-Probability Sampling: Convenience sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling.
6. Data Collection Methods
   • Primary Data: Surveys, interviews, experiments, observations.
   • Secondary Data: Existing data from books, journals, reports.
7. Data Analysis
   • Quantitative Methods: Statistical analysis, regression, correlation.
   • Qualitative Methods: Content analysis, thematic analysis, narrative analysis.
8. Interpretation and Report Writing
   • Interpreting results in the context of the research questions/hypotheses
   • Presenting findings in a structured format

4. Research Designs

• Descriptive Research Design: Observes and describes the behavior of a subject without influencing it.
• Correlational Research Design: Examines the relationship between two or more variables.
• Experimental Research Design: Investigates the causal relationships between variables.
• Quasi-Experimental Research Design: Similar to experimental but lacks random assignment.
• Case Study: In-depth study of a single subject or a small group.
• Longitudinal Study: Research conducted over a long period to observe changes over time.
• Cross-Sectional Study: Observations of a sample at one point in time.

5. Data Collection Methods

• Surveys and Questionnaires: Structured tools for collecting data from a large population.
• Interviews: Can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured to gather in-depth data.
• Observations: Systematic noting and recording of events, behaviors, and artifacts.
• Experiments: Controlled studies to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
• Focus Groups: Group discussions to gain insights into a topic.

6. Data Analysis Techniques

• Quantitative Data Analysis
  • Descriptive Statistics: Mean, median, mode, standard deviation.
  • Inferential Statistics: Hypothesis testing, t-tests, ANOVA, chi-square tests.
  • Regression Analysis: Understanding relationships between variables.
• Qualitative Data Analysis
  • Coding: Categorizing and labeling qualitative data.
  • Thematic Analysis: Identifying themes and patterns in data.
  • Content Analysis: Systematic analysis of text data.

7. Ethical Considerations in Research

• Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the research and consent voluntarily.
• Confidentiality: Ensuring participant data is kept confidential and secure.
• Avoiding Harm: Minimizing any potential harm to participants.
• Integrity: Conducting research honestly and reporting findings accurately.

8. Writing and Presenting Research

• Structure of a Research Report

  • Introduction: Background, problem statement, objectives, hypotheses.
  • Literature Review: Summary and synthesis of related research.
  • Methodology: Detailed description of research design, sampling, data collection, and analysis methods.
  • Results: Presentation of findings using tables, charts, and graphs.
  • Discussion: Interpretation of results, implications, and limitations.
  • Conclusion: Summary of findings and suggestions for future research.
  • References: Citing all sources used in the research.

• Presentation Skills

  • Clear and concise communication
  • Use of visual aids like slides and charts
  • Effective public speaking techniques

9. Advanced Research Techniques

• Meta-Analysis: Combining data from multiple studies to draw broader conclusions.
• Systematic Review: Comprehensive and structured review of existing literature on a topic.
• Mixed-Methods Research: Combining quantitative and qualitative research methods to leverage the strengths of both.

10. Common Research Pitfalls to Avoid

• Bias: Avoiding personal or sampling biases that can skew results.
• Reliability and Validity Issues: Ensuring consistent and accurate measurement.
• Overgeneralization: Making broad claims based on limited data.
• Ethical Violations: Adhering strictly to ethical guidelines.

Schedule of UGC CBSE NET Nov. 2017

UGC CBSE NET November 2017 Schedule

Change of Examination Schedule of CBSE NET Nov. 2017 Reschedule of  Important Dates Online Application Form Submission 11th August 2017 Last date for Applying Online 11th September 2017 Last date of submission of Fee through online generated Bank Challan, at any branch of(SYNDICATE/CANARA/ICICI/HDFC BANK) 12th September 2017 Correction in Particulars of application form on the website 19th to 25th Sep, 2017 Uploading of Admit Card 3rd week of Oct 2017 Date of Examination 05th November2017 (Last Update :01/08/2017) Examination Schedule National Eligibility Test (NET)  05th November, 2017 (SUNDAY) Session Paper Marks Number of Question Duration First I 100 50 questions all are  compulsory 1¼ Hours (09:30 A.M. to 10:45 A.M.) IST Second II 100 50 questions all are  compulsory 1¼ Hours (11:15 A.M. to 12:30 P.M.) IST Third III 150 75 questions all are  compulsory 2½ Hours (02:00 P.M. to 04:30 P.M.) IST

The Aim of Teaching

The Aim of Teaching

There are various modes of teaching. These include conditioning, training, instruction and indoctrination. These are a kind of teaching (or a part of teaching, i.e., whole teaching process include all these) but not synonym with teaching. Some concepts related to various modes of teaching are as
follows:
1. Training helps in shaping conduct and teaching various skills
2. The distinction between training and education may be made through the evaluation of the degree of intelligent behaviour produced by them.
3. Instruction work on a higher footing than conditioning and training as far as the involvement of intellectual powers and modes of teaching are concerned. But they cannot be equated with teaching.
4. Instruction is mainly concerned with the development of knowledge and understanding in an individual which represents one of many objectives of education and teaching.
5. Teaching is aimed towards shaping a total man, while instruction aims only for the development of intellect and affect the cognitive domain of behaviour. Teaching may include or cover instruction.
6. Indoctrination represents a fairly high level of teaching shaping beliefs and ideals. Indoctrination may mean teaching can be done without indoctrination.
To summarize, the aims of teaching with respect to its various modes, are as follows:

 Teaching – to bring changes in the behaviour of student.
 Conditioning – to improve the learning skills of student.
 Training – shaping the behaviour and conduct.
 Instruction – Acquisition of knowledge.
 Indoctrination – Formation of belief.  

UGC NET Paper I Jan 2017 with Key

UGC NET Paper I Jan 2017 with Key

UGC NET Paper I Jan 2017 with Key

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A BIT AND A BYTE?

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A BIT AND A BYTE?

UGC NET Paper I

UGC NET General Paper

The IBM PC and its clones generally use 8 bits (electrical pulses) to make up a byte (computer word.) A ninth "odd bit" is used for error checking (parity testing) to make sure the other eight bits are not accidentally erased or lost during storage or use by the computer.
Bits are like alphabet characters and bytes are like the words made up from alphabet characters. Bits and Bytes are used to measure information by the computer.
BIT
Smallest unit of information recognized by the computer. BIT is short for Binary Digit. A Binary Digit can be either a 0 or a 1. Several bits make up a byte.
BYTE
A group of 8 BITS. This grouping of adjacent binary digits (bits) is operated on by the computer as a unit. Computers use 1

BYTE to represent 1 character such as a letter of the alphabet, a number, a punctuation mark, a space, etc. A BYTE is also a unit of measure since it represents 1 character.
For example, when the letter "A" is pressed, the keyboard actually sends the following to RAM: 10000001 - a set of 8 bits.

History of Computers UGC NET Paper I Material

Brief History of Computers

History of Computers UGC NET Paper I Material 

UGC NET General Paper 

UGC NET Paper I 

History of Computers:

1. First Generation (1939-1954) - vacuum tube

• 1937 - John V. Atanasoff designed the first digital electronic computer
• 1939 - Atanasoff and Clifford Berry demonstrate in Nov. the ABC prototype
• 1941 - Konrad Zuse in Germany developed in secret the Z3
• 1943 - In Britain, the Colossus was designed in secret at Bletchley Park to decode German messages
• 1944 - Howard Aiken developed the Harvard Mark I mechanical computer for the Navy
• 1945 - John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert built ENIAC at U of PA for the U.S. Army
• 1946 - Mauchly and Eckert start Electronic Control Co., received grant from National Bureau of Standards to build a ENIAC-type computer with magnetic tape input/output, renamed UNIVAC in 1947 but run out of money, formed in Dec. 1947 the new company Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation (EMCC).
• 1948 - Howard Aiken developed the Harvard Mark III electronic computer with 5000 tubes
• 1948 - U of Manchester in Britain developed the SSEM Baby electronic computer with CRT memory
• 1949 - Mauchly and Eckert in March successfully tested the BINAC stored-program computer for Northrop Aircraft, with mercury delay line memory and a primitive magentic tape drive; Remington Rand bought EMCC Feb. 1950 and provided funds to finish UNIVAC
• 1950- Commander William C. Norris led Engineering Research Associates to develop the Atlas, based on the secret code-breaking computers used by the Navy in WWII; the Atlas was 38 feet long, 20 feet wide, and used 2700 vacuum tubes
• 1951 - S. A. Lebedev developed the MESM computer in Russia
• 1951 - Remington Rand successfully tested UNIVAC March 30, 1951, and announced to the public its sale to the Census Bureau June 14, 1951, the first commercial computer to feature a magnetic tape storage system, the eight UNISERVO tape drives that stood separate from the CPU and control console on the other side of a garage-size room. Each tape drive was six feet high and three feet wide, used 1/2-inch metal tape of nickel-plated bronze 1200 feet long, recorded data on eight channels at 100 inches per second with a transfer rate of 7,200 characters per second. The complete UNIVAC system weighed 29,000 pounds, included 5200 vacuum tubes, and an offline typewriter-printer UNIPRINTER with an attached metal tape drive. Later, a punched card-to-tape machine was added to read IBM 80-column and Remington Rand 90-column cards.
• 1952 - Remington Rand bought the ERA in Dec. 1951 and combined the UNIVAC product line in 1952: the ERA 1101 computer became the UNIVAC 1101. The UNIVAC I was used in November to calculate the presidential election returns and successfully predict the winner, although it was not trusted by the TV networks who refused to use the prediction.
• 1954 - The sage aircraft-warning system was the largest vacuum tube computer system ever built. It began in 1954 at MIT's Lincoln Lab with funding from the Air Force. The first of 23 Direction Centers went online in Nov. 1956, and the last in 1962. Each Center had two 55,000-tube computers built by IBM, MIT, AND Bell Labs. The 275-ton computers known as "Clyde" were based on Jay Forrester's Whirlwind I and had magnetic core memory, magnetic drum and magnetic tape storage. The Centers were connected by an early network, and pioneered development of the modem and graphics display.

2.Second Generation Computers (1954 -1959) - transistor

• 1950 - National Bureau of Standards (NBS) introduced its Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) with 10,000 newly developed germanium diodes in its logic circuits, and the first magnetic disk drive designed by Jacob Rabinow
• 1953 – Watson Junior led IBM to introduce the model 604 computer, its first with transistors, that became the basis of the model 608 of 1957, the first solid-state computer for the commercial market. Transistors were expensive at first, cost $8 vs. $.75 for a vacuum tube. But Watson was impressed with the new transistor radios and gave them to his engineers to study. IBM also developed the 650 Magnetic Drum Calculator, the first by IBM to use magnetic drum memory rather punched cards, and began shipment of the 701 scientific "Defense Calculator" that was the first of the Model 700 line that dominated main frame computers for the next decade
• 1955 - IBM introduced the 702 business computer; Watson on the cover of Time magazine March 28
• 1956 - Bendix G-15A small business computer sold for only $45,000, designed by Harry Huskey of NBS
• 1959 - General Electric Corporation delivered its Electronic Recording Machine Accounting (ERMA) computing system to the Bank of America in California; based on a design by SRI, the ERMA system employed Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) as the means to capture data from the checks and introduced automation in banking that continued with ATM machines in 1974

3. Third Generation Computers (1959 -1971) - IC

• 1959 - Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments patented the first integrated circuit in Feb. 1959; Kilby had made his first germanium IC in Oct. 1958; Robert Noyce at Fairchild used planar process to make connections of components within a silicon IC in early 1959; the first commercial product using IC was the hearing aid in Dec. 1963; General Instrument made LSI chip (100+ components) for Hammond organs 1968
• 1964 - IBM produced SABRE, the first airline reservation tracking system for American Airlines; IBM announced the System/360 all-purpose computer, using 8-bit character word length (a "byte") that was pioneered in the 7030 of April 1961 that grew out of the AF contract of Oct. 1958 following Sputnik to develop transistor computers for BMEWS
• 1968 - DEC introduced the first "mini-computer", the PDP-8, named after the mini-skirt; DEC was founded in 1957 by Kenneth H. Olsen who came for the SAGE project at MIT and began sales of the PDP-1 in 1960
• 1969 - Development began on ARPAnet, funded by the DOD
• 1971 - Intel produced large scale integrated (LSI) circuits that were used in the digital delay line, the first digital audio device

4. Fourth Generation (1971-1991) - microprocessor

• 1971 - Gilbert Hyatt at Micro Computer Co. patented the microprocessor; Ted Hoff at Intel in February introduced the 4-bit 4004, a VSLI of 2300 components, for the Japanese company Busicom to create a single chip for a calculator; IBM introduced the first 8-inch "memory disk", as it was called then, or the "floppy disk" later; Hoffmann-La Roche patented the passive LCD display for calculators and watches; in November Intel announced the first microcomputer, the MCS-4; Nolan Bushnell designed the first commercial arcade video game "Computer Space"
• 1972 - Intel made the 8-bit 8008 and 8080 microprocessors; Gary Kildall wrote his Control Program/Microprocessor (CP/M) disk operating system to provide instructions for floppy disk drives to work with the 8080 processor. He offered it to Intel, but was turned down, so he sold it on his own, and soon CP/M was the standard operating system for 8-bit microcomputers; Bushnell created Atari and introduced the successful "Pong" game
• 1973 - IBM developed the first true sealed hard disk drive, called the "Winchester" after the rifle company, using two 30 Mb platters; Robert Metcalfe at Xerox PARC created Ethernet as the basis for a local area network, and later founded 3COM
• 1974 - Xerox developed the Alto workstation at PARC, with a monitor, a graphical user interface, a mouse, and an ethernet card for networking
• 1975 - the Altair personal computer is sold in kit form, and influenced Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak
• 1976 - Jobs and Wozniak developed the Apple personal computer; Alan Shugart introduced the 5.25-inch floppy disk
• 1977 - Nintendo in Japan began to make computer games that stored the data on chips inside a game cartridge that sold for around $40 but only cost a few dollars to manufacture. It introduced its most popular game "Donkey Kong" in 1981, Super Mario Bros in 1985
• 1978 - Visicalc spreadsheet software was written by Daniel Bricklin and Bob Frankston
• 1979 - Micropro released Wordstar that set the standard for word processing software
• 1980 - IBM signed a contract with the Microsoft Co. of Bill Gates and Paul Allen and Steve Ballmer to supply an operating system for IBM's new PC model. Microsoft paid $25,000 to Seattle Computer for the rights to QDOS that became Microsoft DOS, and Microsoft began its climb to become the dominant computer company in the world.
• 1984 - Apple Computer introduced the Macintosh personal computer January 24.
• 1987 - Bill Atkinson of Apple Computers created a software program called HyperCard that was bundled free with all Macintosh computers. This program for the first time made hypertext popular and useable to a wide number of people.

5. Fifth Generation (1991 and Beyond)

• 1991 - World-Wide Web (WWW) was developed by Tim Berners-Lee and released by CERN.
• 1993 - The first Web browser called Mosaic was created by student Marc Andreessen and programmer Eric Bina at NCSA in the first 3 months of 1993. The beta version 0.5 of X Mosaic for UNIX was released Jan. 23 1993 and was instant success. The PC and Mac versions of Mosaic followed quickly in 1993. Mosaic was the first software to interpret a new IMG tag, and to display graphics along with text. Berners-Lee objected to the IMG tag, considered it frivolous, but image display became one of the most used features of the Web. The Web grew fast because the infrastructure was already in place: the Internet, desktop PC, home modems connected to online services such as AOL and Compuserve
• 1994 - Netscape Navigator 1.0 was released Dec. 1994, and was given away free, soon gaining 75% of world browser market.
• 1996 - Microsoft failed to recognized the importance of the Web, but finally released the much improved browser Explorer 3.0 in the summer.

History of Computers UGC NET Paper I Material 

RESEARCH DESIGN

UGC NET Paper I - Research Aptitude

RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design provides the glue that holds the research project together. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project the samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, and methods of assignment work together to try to address the central research questions. Design can be either experimental or non-experimental.

Data analysis is the last part of the research. In most social research the data analysis involves three major steps, done in roughly this order:

Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis (Data Preparation)
Describing the data (Descriptive Statistics)
Testing Hypotheses and Models (Inferential Statistics)

Data Preparation involves checking or logging the data in; checking the data for accuracy; entering the data into the computer; transforming the data; and developing and documenting a database structure that integrates the various measures.

Descriptive Statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data. With descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is, what the data shows.
Inferential Statistics investigate questions, models and hypotheses. In many cases, the conclusions from inferential statistics extend beyond the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the population thinks. Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data.

SAMPLING - RESEARCH APTITUDE

UGC NET Paper I - Research Aptitude

SAMPLING - RESEARCH APTITUDE

SAMPLING: Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen. A response is a specific measurement value that a sampling unit supplies. If you measure the entire population and calculate a value like a mean or average, it is called parameter of the population. The distribution of an infinite number of samples of the same size as the sample in your study is known as the sampling distribution.

In sampling contexts, the standard error is called sampling error. Sampling error gives us some idea of the precision of our statistical estimate. A low sampling error means that we had relatively less variability or range in the sampling distribution. How do we calculate sampling error? on the standard deviation of our sample. The greater the sample standard deviation, the greater the standard error /the sampling error. The standard error is also related to the sample size. The greater your sample size, the smaller the standard error. Because the greater the sample size, the closer your sample is to the actual population itself. If you take a sample that consists of the entire population you actually have no sampling error because you don't have a sample, you have the entire population. In that case, the mean you estimate is the parameter.

Probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection such as picking a name out of a hat, or choosing the short straw.

The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling. Simple random sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to explain to others. Because simple random sampling is a fair way to select a sample, it is reasonable to generalize the results from the sample back to the population. Simple random sampling is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling and you may, just because of the luck of the draw, not get good representation of subgroups in a population.

Stratified Random Sampling, also sometimes called proportional or quota random sampling, involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup. It assures that you will be able to represent not only the overall population, but also key subgroups of the population, especially small minority groups. Second, stratified random sampling will generally have more statistical precision than simple random sampling. This will only be true if the strata or groups are homogeneous.

The problem with random sampling methods when we have to sample a population that's disbursed across a wide geographic region is that you will have to cover a lot of ground geographically in order to get to each of the units you sampled. It is for precisely this problem that cluster or area random sampling was invented. In cluster sampling, we follow these steps:
1.divide population into clusters (usually along geographic boundaries).
2. Randomly sample clusters.
3. Measure all units within sampled clusters.

Non-probability sampling. The difference between nonprobability and probability sampling is that nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. We can divide nonprobability sampling methods into two broad types: accidental or purposive. In accidental sampling, sample is chosen accidentally and we have no evidence that they are representative of the populations we're interested in generalizing to and in many cases we would clearly suspect that they are not. e.g. college students in some psychological survey. In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would have one or more specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance, have you ever run into people in a mall or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who are stopping various people and asking if they could interview them? Most likely they are conducting a purposive sample. Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. With a purposive sample, you are likely to get the opinions of your target population, but you are also likely to overweight subgroups in your population that are more readily accessible.

One of purposive sampling is quota sampling. In quota sampling, you select people nonrandomly according to some fixed quota. There are two types of quota sampling: proportional and non proportional. In proportional quota sampling you want to represent the major characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount of each. e.g. getting 40% females from a population of say 1000.

Then there is snowball sampling. In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who they may know who also meet the criteria.

Types of Research - Definitions

UGC NET Paper I - Research Aptitude

Types of Research - Definitions

Action research is a methodology that combines action and research to examine specific questions, issues or phenomena through observation and reflection, and deliberate intervention to improve practice.

Applied research is research undertaken to solve practical problems rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake.

Basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge without looking for long-term benefits other than the advancement of knowledge.

Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviors of individuals to explore a social or human problem and include methods such as focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research and case studies.

Quantitative research is research concerned with the measurement of attitudes, behaviors and perceptions and includes interviewing methods such as telephone, intercept and door-to-door interviews as well as self-completion methods such as mail outs and online surveys.

The Man Booker Prize Winners List

The Man Booker Prize Winners List

The Man Booker Prize also known as the Booker Prize is a prestigious award given to the writer of a full-length novel in English Language by a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Ireland or Zimbabwe. Besides winning The Man Booker Prize Award, getting nominated for The Man Booker Long List is a great honor too. Find the latest novels by the booker prize winner here, we have an year wise collection of all the winning novels from the The Booker Prize winners list for your convenience. Take a look and read the most buzzing literature in town at the moment.

2013

• The Luminaries - by Eleanor Catton
• 2012

• Bring up the Bodies - by Hilary Mantel - Winner!

2011

• The Sense Of An Ending - by Julian Barnes - Winner!

2010

• The Finkler Question - by Howard Jacobson - Winner!

2009

• Wolf Hall - by Hilary Mantel - Winner!

2008

• The White Tiger - by Aravind Adiga - Winner!

2007

• The Gathering - by Anne Enright - Winner!

2006

• Inheritance of Loss - by Kiran Desai - Winner!

2005

• The Sea - by John Banville - Winner!

2004

• The Line of Beauty - by Alan Hollinghurst - Winner!
• 2003

• Vernon God Little - by D B C Pierre - Winner!

2002

• Life of Pi - by Yann Martel - Winner!

2001

• True History of The Kelly Gang - by Peter Carey - Winner!

2000

• The Blind Assassin - by Margaret Atwood - Winner!

1999

• Disgrace - by J M Coetzee - Winner!

1998

• Amsterdam - by Ian Mc Ewan - Winner!

1997

• The God of Small Things: Winner of the 1997 Booker Prize - by Arundhati Roy - Winner!

1996

• Last Orders (Spanish Edition) - by Graham Swift - Winner!

1995

• The Ghost Road - by Pat Barker - Winner!

1994

• How Late It Was, How Late - by James Kelman - Winner!

1993

• Paddy Clarke Ha Ha Ha (English) - by Roddy Doyle - Winner!

1992

• The English Patient - by Michael Ondaatje - Cowinner!
• Sacred Hunger - by Barry Unsworth - Cowinner!

1991

• The Famished Road - by Ben Okri - Winner!

1990

• Possession (Vintage Classics) - by A S Byatt - Winner!

1989

• The Remains of the Day - by Kazuo Ishiguro - Winner!

1988

• Oscar and Lucinda - by Peter Carey - Winner!

1987

• Moon Tiger - by Penelope Lively - Winner!

1986

• The Old Devils - by Kingsley Amis - Winner!

1985

• The Bone People - by Keri Hulme - Winner!

1984

• Hotel Du Lac (Spanish Edition) - by Anita Brookner - Winner!

1983

• Life and Times of Michael K - by J M Coetzee - Winner!

1982

• Schindler's List - by Thomas Keneally - Winner!

1981

• Midnight's Children - by Salman Rushdie - Winner!

1980

• Rites of Passage (Sea Trilogy) - by William Golding - Winner!

1979

• Offshore - by Penelope Fitzgerald - Winner!

1978

• The Sea, the Sea - by Iris Murdoch - Winner!

1977

• Staying On - by Paul Scott - Winner!

1976

• Saville - by David Storey - Winner!

1975

• Heat and Dust - by R P Jhabvala - Winner!

1974

• The Conservationist - by Nadine Gordimer - Cowinner!
• Holiday - by Stanley Middleto - Cowinner!

1973

• The Siege of Krishnapur - by J G Farrell - Winner!

1972

• The Bird of Night - by Susan Hill - Winner!

1971

• In a Free State - by V S Naipaul - Winner!
• 1970

• The Elected Member - by Bernice Rubens - Winner!

1969

• Something to Answer For - by P.H. New - Winner!

(Adopted from : http://www.infibeam.com/Books/Man-Booker-Prize-winners-a.html)